But in times of famine and disorder they might plot for the Greater Enterprises (the founding of a new dynasty). In normal times the society was engaged in daily worshipвЂ¦ and preached that by reciting scriptures and verses, one can escape the dangers of swords and arms, water and fireвЂ¦. As a Chinese imperial decree written in 1813 points out: The White Lotus functioned primarily as a spiritual body, but in times of political dissatisfaction and social upheaval it quickly took on the outer characteristics of a radical political movement. It often had to change its name in order to conceal its identity, and was associated with other groups, principally the Society of Heaven and Earth (also called the Hung society or Triad). One of the most influential of ChinaвЂ™s secret societies went by the name White Lotus. The discipline was extremely strict, and any violation, betrayal, or collusion with the authorities was punished by death. Vis-Г -vis established society they constituted an вЂanti-societyвЂ™ in the sense in which modern physicists talk of an anti-matter or an anti-universeвЂ¦ Their rites, secrets, oaths of initiation, conventional ideograms вЂ“ features of which the Triad has provided very typical examples but which are found also in all similar associations вЂ“ made a powerful contribution towards the consolidation of this autonomous order. The secret societies claimed a rival order to that of emperor and mandarins. Nocturnal initiation ceremonies, arcane teachings, secret signs, symbols and passwords, all helped bind a memberвЂ™s loyalty to the fraternity. In the words of Chinese historian Teng Ssu-Yu, they were the вЂњnerve centresвЂќ of opposition to the imperial government, вЂњwhich profit from favourable circumstances to start insurrections and rebellions.вЂќ The secret society formed a hidden parallel empire, a state within a state, and this was a major source of its strength. The Yellow Turbans in their mixture of religion and political dissatisfaction may be regarded as the forerunners of the secret societies that sprang up all across China.Д«y organising opposition to excessive taxation and the despotism of corrupt bureaucrats, secret societies gained widespread support.

As early as the second century, the armed uprising that eventually overthrew the Han dynasty was instigated by a Taoist sect called the Yellow Turbans, whose leader was renowned for his gift of spiritual healing and supernatural powers. Secret societies were directly involved in all the peasant rebellions in Chinese history. вЂњThe officials draw their power from the law the people, from the secret societies.вЂќ This Chinese saying sums up the centuries-old conflict between rulers and ruled, privileged and oppressed in imperial China. Right up to the birth of the PeopleвЂ™s Republic in 1949, secret societies were a special characteristic of old China. These extravagant fictional tales often obscure the plain truth that for at least two thousand years secret societies did play a vital part in the dynamics of ChinaвЂ™s political, social and religious life. Thanks to the latest Hollywood martial arts blockbuster along with a steady stream of Hong Kong action films, audiences around the world have been entertained by wild and colourful portrayals of Chinese secret societies. From New Dawn Special Issue 11 (Mar 2010)

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